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imple magnification devices, like water-filled spheres and rock advancements. Early single lens models, with cases often made of
crystal (quartz) “burning glasses” were known around the ivory, bone, wood, or tortoiseshell, feature simple screw barrels with
SMediterranean and across the Middle East in ancient times. These interchangeable lenses of different powers. Few have survived.
evidently served not only to light kindling but also to cauterize wounds In the early 1600s, compound microscopes, which feature double
and enlarge texts. According to Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder, Nero lenses for higher magnification, were introduced. Their objective lens
viewed gladiator battles while peering through a precious, green, clear forms a two-dimensional image of the specimen studied, while the
“smaragdus,” believed to be an emerald. Whether this was fashionable, adjustment of its ocular (eyepiece) lens brings it into focus. Designs
dramatic affectation, or corrected his vision is not known. vary. Culpepper types, for example, are made of wood, cardboard, and
Reading stones, domes of polished glass or rock crystal placed over lustrous, green-dyed shagreen (sharkskin) upon circular bases. Cuff
text to magnify its letters came into use around 1000 AD. Within a types feature stable, box-shaped bases, while Gould types feature central
century, clerks and scholars were using round, handheld, low power tubes whose cases often function as bases.
magnifying lenses, some mounted with brass or bone rims and
handles. Later designs, following fashion, were birch, rosewood,
fruitwood, porcelain, mother-of-pearl, gold, or silver-mounted. Since
Europeans were charmed by oriental decorative styles, Chinese-made
bone, ivory, jade, jeweled, and metal-mounted magnifying glasses were
also desirable. Faberge’s
two-tone gold creations,
featuring opulent nephrite,
guilloche enamel, pearl,
emerald, ruby, rose-cut
diamond, rock crystal,
or moonstone embellish-
ments, however, were
extraordinary.

Expand My View

of the World Miniature Dollond Monoculars, London, a 2-inch
diameter black composite and gilt two-draw
As European explorers, monocular housed in its original red leather fitted case, and a 1 1/2 inch dia.
seafarers, naturalists, and five-draw silvered monocular realized $438 at auction in 2020
adventurers introduced photo: skinnerinc.com
exotic varieties of flora Microscopes—dated and created by noted instrument makers like
and fauna from far Hugh Powell or Swift & Son, and housed in original, fine wood cases
shores, curiosity about the containing additional optical accouterments—are highly desirable. So
world abroad increased. As are the engraved, gilt-bronze models housed in gold-tooled, velvet-
a result, the nature of lined, fitted leather cases. These examples were coveted by 18th century
scientific study changed. A royalty and the well-to-do.
method of meticulous, In 1609, Galileo Galilei revolutionized astronomy by applying the
systematic research arose, glass lens telescope, invented in the Netherlands, as an instrument to
based on measurable study the solar system. Since this device works by refracting (bending)
evidence gleaned from a light as it passed from air to glass, it is also known as a refractor.
range of innovative scientific Due to its length, it creates high magnification with bright, sharp
instruments. resolutions. Because its lenses are large and heavy, however, refractor
As an example, micro- telescopes generally require tripod support.
scopes are magnification Through the 1800s, an array of smaller, weaker, lighter, less costly
devices used to study refracting telescopes, known as monoculars, were produced for personal
Microscope: 3 convex lenses in the inner objects too small to be seen
cylinder, fitting into shagreen (snakeskin)- by the naked eye. Over use. Simple, adjustable, handheld pocket scopes, for instance,
covered tube, with gilt-bronze finial cap and time, their components magnified objects within sight of the viewer through the use of a series
tripod stand, optics by Passemant, ingénieur du of extending lenses. Their dimensional images were well-suited for a
and designs have varied, variety of naturalist and outdoor enthusiasts, including bird watchers,
roi, France, c. 1750 photo: metmuseum.org
reflecting technological hunters, mariners, as well as the visually impaired.
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